Northern Blue Tongue Skink Guide: Diet, Care, and Behavior

Introduction to Northern Blue Tongue Skinks

The Northern Blue Tongue Skink (Tiliqua scincoides intermedia) is a popular and remarkable species of reptile, recognized for its distinctive blue tongue and hefty, elongated body. Native to the northern regions of Australia, this species thrives in varied habitats including forests, grasslands, and semi-arid areas. Its adaptability both in the wild and captivity has made it a favored choice among reptile enthusiasts.

These skinks are medium to large-sized lizards, often reaching lengths of 18 to 24 inches, with robust, flattened bodies covered in smooth, overlapping scales. Their coloration varies widely but commonly showcases earthy tones like brown, orange, and cream, often patterned with bold stripes. This natural camouflage protects them from predators, while their iconic bright blue tongue serves as a defensive display to deter threats.

Northern Blue Tongue Skinks are diurnal, meaning they are most active during the day. They are terrestrial by nature, spending much of their time on the ground foraging for food or basking in the sun. Known for their docile temperament, they are highly tolerant of human interaction, making them suitable for beginner and experienced keepers alike.

In captivity, these skinks are hardy and relatively low-maintenance, but they do require suitable conditions to thrive. They are omnivorous, feeding on a varied diet that includes fruits, vegetables, and proteins. Their ability to adapt to a range of environments, coupled with their unique appearance and calm demeanor, has solidified their popularity among reptile lovers worldwide. Having a foundational understanding of their behavior, dietary needs, and habitat preferences is essential to providing optimal care.

Understanding Their Natural Habitat

Northern blue tongue skinks (Tiliqua scincoides intermedia) are native to the open woodlands, grasslands, and scrublands of Australia, specifically in the northern regions. These habitats provide the diverse range of conditions the species requires for survival, including ample shelter, access to food, and varying temperatures for thermoregulation. Understanding their natural environment is essential for recreating a comfortable and healthy enclosure in captivity.

In the wild, these skinks are terrestrial and typically spend their time on the ground, though they will occasionally burrow or seek refuge under rocks, logs, and leaf litter. They thrive in environments with moderate humidity, ranging between 40% and 60%, as well as warm temperatures suited to their cold-blooded physiology. Desert and arid areas are less suitable for this species, as they prefer regions with occasional rain that ensures some moisture in the environment.

The regions Northern blue tongue skinks inhabit often experience seasonal variations, which reflect in their behavior. They may become less active during cooler months, a behavior similar to brumation that can occur in captivity. Within their preferred habitat, they are opportunistic feeders, foraging for a variety of insects, fruits, flowers, and small vertebrates.

These skinks rely on natural shelters for protection from predators, which include birds of prey, snakes, and larger mammals. Dense vegetation, rock crevices, and loose soil provide effective hiding spots. By understanding their reliance on such shelters and environmental features, owners can replicate these elements, creating spaces that mimic their wild habitat and reduce stress.

Basic Housing and Enclosure Requirements

Northern blue tongue skinks require a properly set up enclosure to thrive in captivity. The enclosure should be spacious, secure, and well-ventilated to replicate their natural habitat and meet their physical and behavioral needs. A minimum enclosure size of 48 inches long, 24 inches wide, and 18 inches high is recommended for a single adult skink. Larger enclosures are always preferred as they allow for more enrichment and movement.

Glass tanks, wooden vivariums, or PVC enclosures are suitable, as long as they provide adequate ventilation and retain heat effectively. The enclosure should have a tight-fitting, secure lid to prevent escapes, as blue tongue skinks can be surprisingly strong and curious.

Substrate choice is important for maintaining a clean and comfortable environment. Popular options include cypress mulch, coconut husk, and aspen shavings. These substrates hold moisture well, helping to maintain proper humidity levels, which should be kept between 40% and 60%. Avoid loose substrates that can cause impaction, such as sand or small bark chips.

Temperature gradients are vital for their thermoregulation. The basking spot should be maintained at 95°F to 100°F, while the cooler side of the enclosure should stay around 75°F to 85°F. A ceramic heat emitter or basking bulb can be used to create the warm spot. Use a thermometer to monitor temperatures accurately.

Provide hiding areas on both the warm and cool sides of the enclosure to help the skink feel secure. Additionally, including décor like branches, rocks, or artificial plants enriches the space and stimulates natural behaviors.

Proper lighting is necessary for their well-being. While blue tongue skinks are not highly UV-reliant, providing low-level UVB lighting mimics sunlight exposure and supports vitamin D synthesis.

Creating the Ideal Temperature and Humidity Levels

Maintaining appropriate temperature and humidity levels is crucial for the health and well-being of a northern blue tongue skink. These reptiles are native to environments where they experience a range of warm temperatures and moderate humidity, so replicating those conditions in captivity is essential. A carefully regulated habitat enhances their comfort and immune system while encouraging natural behaviors.

The basking area should be maintained at a temperature range of 95–100°F (35–38°C), allowing the skink to thermoregulate effectively. Heat lamps or ceramic heat emitters are commonly used to create a localized source of higher heat. On the cooler side of the enclosure, temperatures should range between 75–82°F (24–28°C) during the day. At night, temperatures can safely drop to around 72°F (22°C), mimicking natural fluctuations. Always use reliable digital thermometers to monitor temperatures in different zones.

Humidity levels should remain consistent between 40–60%, which is the range that best meets the skink’s physiological needs. Using a hygrometer to measure humidity is strongly recommended. To maintain proper humidity, light misting once or twice daily may be beneficial, particularly in drier climates. Alternatively, placing a moist hide filled with damp sphagnum moss or coconut fiber can provide an additional microhabitat. Ensure, however, that excessive moisture doesn’t lead to overly damp conditions, as this can encourage respiratory issues or mold growth.

Proper placement of substrate can aid in stabilizing humidity. Loose, absorbent substrates like cypress mulch or a soil and sand mixture are effective. Avoid using substrates like pine or cedar, as these can release harmful oils when exposed to humidity. Regular ventilation also ensures fresh air circulation, balancing humidity while preventing stagnation.

Substrate Options and Enclosure Maintenance

Selecting the right substrate for a Northern Blue Tongue Skink is essential to ensure their comfort, safety, and well-being. A suitable substrate replicates their natural habitat, supports natural behaviors like burrowing, and minimizes risks associated with impaction. Popular substrate options include:

• Coconut Husk or Coir: Highly absorbent, maintains humidity well, and provides a soft surface ideal for burrowing.
• Aspen Shavings: A safe, dry option that allows for burrowing but may require regular spot cleaning to avoid odors.
• Cypress Mulch: Retains humidity effectively and is commonly used in enclosures for reptiles from more humid climates.
• Topsoil and Sand Mix: A mixture of organic, pesticide-free topsoil and play sand (usually in a 70:30 ratio) mimics the skink’s native environment. It supports digging while holding moisture for humidity control.

Avoid substrates like pine or cedar shavings, which release harmful aromatic oils, and substrates composed of small particles, such as gravel or crushed walnut shells, which can cause intestinal blockages if ingested.

Maintaining the enclosure is vital to prevent the buildup of bacteria and ensure a healthy environment. Spot cleaning should be done daily to remove waste, shed skin, and uneaten food. A deep cleaning of the enclosure, including replacement of the substrate, should be performed every 4–6 weeks or more frequently if the enclosure houses young skinks, who tend to have messier habits. During deep cleaning, the enclosure’s surfaces, hides, and decorations should be disinfected with a reptile-safe cleaner or a diluted bleach solution blended at a 1:10 ratio. All items must be thoroughly rinsed and dried before being placed back into the enclosure.

Humidity levels should be monitored, as improper substrate use or poor maintenance can lead to humidity fluctuations. Regular maintenance combined with appropriate substrate selection ensures a safe and comfortable space for the skink.

Feeding Guide: Creating a Balanced Diet

Northern blue tongue skinks thrive on a diet that mirrors their omnivorous tendencies in the wild. Creating a balanced diet ensures these reptiles maintain optimal health and vitality throughout their lives. Their dietary needs include a mix of protein, vegetables, fruits, and occasional supplements, carefully proportioned to mimic their natural intake.

1. Protein Sources Animal-based proteins are a crucial component of a skink’s diet. Suitable options include:

• Cooked lean meats, such as turkey or chicken
• Hard-boiled eggs (offered sparingly)
• High-quality canned cat or dog food (grain-free and low sodium)
• Insects like crickets, mealworms, and dubia roaches (gut-loaded for added nutritional value)

2. Vegetables Vegetables should form about 50% of their diet. Leafy greens and brightly colored vegetables provide essential vitamins and minerals. Include options such as:

• Collard greens, mustard greens, and dandelion greens
• Squash, zucchini, and bell peppers
• Shredded carrots or green beans

3. Fruits Fruits can be given occasionally as treats, composing no more than 10% of their diet. Options include:

• Berries like blueberries, raspberries, or strawberries
• Mango, papaya, or melons in small amounts
• Apples (peeled and seedless)

4. Supplements To support proper health, calcium and vitamin D3 supplements are necessary, especially if the skink lacks adequate UVB exposure. Lightly dust their meals with supplements 1–2 times weekly, depending on their habitat conditions.

Feeding Schedule and Portions Adult skinks should be fed 2–3 times weekly, while juveniles require smaller, more frequent meals. Ensure portions are manageable for their size, and remove uneaten food promptly to maintain enclosure hygiene.

Tips for Variety Rotating ingredients prevents picky eating and ensures diverse nutritional intake. Offering a blend of textures and flavors engages the skink while promoting natural foraging behavior.

Supplements and Nutritional Needs

Northern blue tongue skinks require a well-balanced diet supplemented with essential vitamins and minerals to maintain optimal health. Their dietary needs reflect their status as omnivores, and these supplements play a critical role in ensuring they receive all necessary nutrients not always present in their standard food sources.

Key Supplement Requirements

• Calcium: Calcium is essential for strong bones and overall body health. It is particularly important to prevent metabolic bone disease, a common condition in reptiles caused by calcium deficiency. Calcium powder, preferably one that includes vitamin D3, should be dusted lightly onto feeder insects, fruits, or vegetables at least once per week. For younger skinks, calcium supplementation may be required more frequently to support proper growth.

• Multivitamins: In addition to calcium, multivitamin supplements help fill nutrient gaps and ensure skinks receive vital vitamins they may not acquire from their diet alone. These supplements should be used sparingly, typically no more than once every two weeks to avoid over-supplementation, which can also be harmful.

Supplement Best Practices

1. Select reputable, high-quality supplement brands designed for reptiles.
2. Rotate supplements to provide variety and prevent potential imbalances.
3. Avoid oversupplementing, as excesses of certain vitamins, such as vitamin A, can lead to toxicity.
4. Pair calcium with vitamin D3, especially if the skink does not regularly receive UVB exposure to synthesize natural vitamin D.

Regular observation of feeding habits and consulting with an exotic veterinarian can help tailor supplementation to an individual skink’s needs. Owners should also remember to monitor their pet’s stool and energy levels, as deficiencies or excesses in supplements may manifest as dietary or health issues. Proper supplementation ensures skinks thrive in captivity while mimicking the nutrient diversity found in their natural habitat.

Common Health Issues and Preventive Care

Northern blue tongue skinks, though hardy reptiles, can experience various health issues if environmental and dietary needs are not met. Recognizing common ailments and practicing preventive care are essential to ensure their long-term well-being.

Common Health Issues:

• Respiratory Infections: These occur when the enclosure is too cold or damp. Signs include wheezing, nasal discharge, and lethargy. Prompt veterinary care is required to treat such infections.
• Metabolic Bone Disease (MBD): Caused by insufficient calcium intake and lack of UVB exposure, MBD results in weakened bones, deformities, and difficulty moving. Providing proper lighting and calcium supplementation helps prevent this condition.
• Parasites: Internal worms or external mites may infect skinks. Symptoms include weight loss, loss of appetite, and skin irritation. Regular enclosure cleaning and occasional fecal exams by an exotic vet can detect and manage parasites.
• Shedding Problems (Dysecdysis): Improper humidity can cause incomplete shedding, especially around the toes and tail. This can lead to constriction and tissue damage if not addressed. Increasing humidity and offering shedding aids, like rough surfaces, are preventive measures.
• Mouth Rot (Stomatitis): Poor hygiene or injuries may lead to bacterial infections in the mouth. Indicators include swollen gums, pus, or a lack of appetite. Such cases require veterinary intervention.

Preventive Care Tips:

1. Provide an Optimal Environment: Maintain temperatures between 75–95°F with a basking spot and a humidity range of 40–60%.
2. Ensure UVB Accessibility: A UVB light source is vital for calcium absorption and overall health. Replace UVB bulbs every 6–12 months.
3. Offer a Balanced Diet: Feed high-quality proteins, vegetables, and fruits to meet nutritional needs. Calcium and vitamin D3 supplements are essential.
4. Practice Regular Hygiene: Clean the enclosure frequently, removing waste, uneaten food, and soiled substrate.
5. Monitor Health Consistently: Observe your skink for unusual behaviors or physical symptoms and schedule routine vet checkups.

By addressing these aspects, many health issues can be prevented, ensuring a healthier and happier life for your blue tongue skink.

Behavioral Traits and Personality Insights

Northern blue tongue skinks are known for their calm demeanor and are often regarded as one of the most docile reptile species. Their temperament makes them a popular choice for beginners and experienced reptile enthusiasts alike. While individual personality can vary, most display a gentle nature, especially when handled from an early age and accustomed to human interaction. These skinks tend to be curious by nature, often exploring their surroundings when given the freedom to roam.

They are generally solitary creatures that thrive without the need for companionship. Housing multiple skinks in one enclosure is not recommended, as they can become territorial and exhibit aggressive behavior toward each other. However, this independent disposition contributes to their ease of care, as they do not rely on social interactions for stimulation or well-being.

When approached by potential threats, blue tongue skinks often puff up their bodies for intimidation and display their vibrant blue tongues to ward off predators. This behavior is a defense mechanism and is rarely directed toward their handlers unless they feel threatened or startled. A sudden hiss or mock strike might occur in such situations, but these are non-aggressive warnings rather than genuine attacks.

Being primarily crepuscular, Northern blue tongue skinks are most active at dawn and dusk. This activity pattern is essential to understand when planning feeding times and handling sessions. Over time, they can develop trust with their caregivers, often associating them with food and safety. Once comfortable, these reptiles demonstrate a surprisingly affectionate and relaxed personality, making them a joy to keep and observe.

Handling and Socialization Tips

Proper handling and socialization are essential for ensuring a Northern Blue Tongue Skink develops into a calm and trusting reptile. These creatures often respond well to regular, gentle interaction, but patience and consistency are key.

For initial handling, time should be given for the skink to acclimate to its new environment. A stressed or unfamiliar skink may hiss or puff up as a defensive response. Observing its body language is vital; approaching too soon can exacerbate discomfort. Owners should begin with slow and deliberate movements, bringing their hand near the skink without immediate contact, allowing it to observe and adjust.

Once the skink appears calm, handling can begin gently. Sliding a hand beneath its body and fully supporting its weight is recommended. Avoid grasping tightly, particularly around sensitive areas like the tail. Regular, short handling sessions lasting 5 to 10 minutes a few times a week can help build trust. Increasing handling duration gradually ensures the skink adjusts without stress.

Socialization between the skink and other household pets or individuals should be controlled and supervised. Introducing other animals should be avoided unless the situation is secure, as even well-behaved pets might unintentionally frighten or injure the skink.

When interacting with children, supervision is essential. Teaching kids about the skink’s needs and boundaries helps avoid accidental harm to the reptile. Skinks are naturally curious and will eventually become more comfortable with hands-on interaction if handled respectfully.

Lastly, avoid handling during shedding periods or right after feeding, as these can be times of heightened sensitivity for the skink. Observing these practices will create positive experiences for both the skink and the handler.

Breeding Insights and Reproductive Basics

Breeding northern blue tongue skinks requires a careful understanding of their reproductive biology and specific environmental needs. These reptiles are known to be ovoviviparous, meaning that females give birth to live young rather than laying eggs. Breeding typically occurs during their natural breeding season, which is triggered by changes in temperature and light cycles, often mimicking spring conditions.

Before introducing potential mates, it is essential to ensure both the male and female skinks are healthy, mature, and of appropriate size. Males usually reach sexual maturity at around 12 to 15 months of age, while females may take up to 18 months. Housing them separately until the breeding season helps prevent unnecessary stress and aggression.

When introducing the pair, signs of receptiveness in the female may include calm behavior and lack of resistance to the male’s advances. Conversely, aggression from either skink can signal incompatibility or the need for more acclimation time. Successful courtship involves the male pursuing the female, engaging in slight biting or nudging behaviors, which is normal for this species.

Gestation in northern blue tongue skinks lasts approximately 3 to 5 months. During this period, female skinks may exhibit increased appetite and weight gain. Shelters and minimal disturbance during gestation are vital for their comfort. Once the young are born, they emerge fully formed and independent, requiring separate housing to prevent competition or injury from adult skinks.

Post-birth care includes ensuring the neonates have access to a humid environment, nutrient-rich foods, and ample hydration to set them up for healthy growth. Breeding these skinks successfully demands close observation, patience, and adherence to their natural reproductive rhythms, ensuring both the adults and offspring thrive.

Signs of Stress and How to Address Them

Identifying stress in Northern Blue Tongue Skinks is crucial for maintaining their health and well-being. These reptiles are generally calm by nature, but several environmental or health factors can cause stress, leading to behavioral and physical changes that should not be ignored.

Common Signs of Stress

Below is a list of typical stress indicators in Northern Blue Tongue Skinks:

• Hissing and Puffing: If the skink frequently hisses or puffs up, it may perceive a threat or feel uncomfortable in its environment.
• Excessive Burrowing: While burrowing is natural, excessive or obsessive digging may indicate an attempt to escape unsuitable conditions, such as intense lighting or temperature imbalance.
• Loss of Appetite: A stressed skink often refrains from eating. This may be coupled with lethargy, which signals deeper concerns.
• Flicking Tongue Without Eating: Repeated tongue flicking without food present may be a sign of restlessness or anxiety.
• Erratic Movement: Pacing or sudden, erratic movements can indicate environmental dissatisfaction.
• Discoloration: Darkened or pale coloring suggests emotional or physiological stress and warrants a closer investigation.

Ways to Address Stress

If your Blue Tongue Skink exhibits signs of stress, consider the following solutions:

1. Assess the Habitat: Ensure the enclosure has the proper temperature gradient (87–97°F basking area, 70–77°F cool side) and adequate humidity (40–60%).
2. Provide Hiding Spaces: Add hides to promote a sense of security, as skinks prefer privacy to feel safe.
3. Adjust Handling: Minimize handling and allow the skink time to acclimate if recently relocated or new to your care.
4. Check Lighting Conditions: Avoid excessively bright light or improper UVB exposure, as these can disturb their natural patterns.
5. Evaluate Health: Consult a reptile veterinarian to rule out health-related causes, such as parasites or illness.

By addressing these factors, stress can often be mitigated effectively, allowing the skink to thrive. Proper observation is key to identifying problematic areas in a timely manner.

Choosing a Healthy Northern Blue Tongue Skink

When selecting a Northern Blue Tongue Skink, it is important to carefully evaluate its overall health and condition. Observing the skink’s appearance, behavior, and environment provides valuable insight into its well-being.

Physical Appearance

Inspect the skink’s physical condition thoroughly. A healthy skink will have smooth, shiny scales free of injuries, abrasions, or shed remnants. Its body should appear slightly robust, neither too thin nor excessively bloated. Pay attention to the tail; a well-maintained, thick tail can indicate good overall health and nutrition. The skink’s eyes should be bright, clear, and free from discharge. Check its nostrils for blockages, as clear nasal passages are another indicator of a healthy respiratory system.

Movement and Behavior

Carefully observe the skink’s movements. It should display active, steady movement when stimulated, and its legs should support its body without limping or dragging. A skink that acts lethargic, uninterested, or unresponsive could be unwell. Additionally, ensure that it uses its famous blue tongue to flick occasionally, as this behavior is common in curious, alert individuals.

Feeding Response

Ask the seller or breeder about the skink’s feeding habits. A healthy Northern Blue Tongue Skink should have a consistent appetite and be feeding on a varied diet. Failure to eat or a noticeably reduced appetite might signal an underlying health problem. If possible, witness the skink eating to ensure its ability to chew and swallow without issue.

Environmental Signs

Evaluate the conditions of the enclosure where the skink is kept. Look for clean and appropriately sized housing with access to fresh water and adequate heating and lighting. Overcrowding, poor hygiene, or improper temperatures can negatively affect the skink’s health.

Seller Reputation

Choose to purchase from an ethical, reputable breeder or vendor. They should provide accurate documentation about the skink’s age, origin, and any veterinary history. A trustworthy source will gladly answer your questions and allow for thorough inspection of the animal.

Essential Supplies: A Checklist for Beginners

For those ready to care for a Northern Blue Tongue Skink, gathering the appropriate supplies is a vital step in ensuring your pet thrives in its new environment. Below is a detailed checklist of essential items required to meet the skink’s habitat, dietary, and enrichment needs.

Enclosure and Habitat Essentials

• Tank or Enclosure: A 40-gallon enclosure is the minimum size, though a larger 50- to 75-gallon tank provides ample space as they grow. Choose a secure tank with a tight-fitting lid to prevent escapes.
• Substrate: Select a safe and comfortable substrate, such as cypress mulch, aspen shavings, or coconut coir. Avoid sand or pine/cedar shavings due to potential health risks.
• Heating Elements: Provide a basking light to maintain a temperature gradient of 70-80°F on the cool side and 95-100°F in the basking area. Ensure a thermostat or temperature gun is used for accuracy.
• UVB Lighting: Although not strictly essential, UVB light is recommended to support vitamin D3 synthesis and promote overall health.
• Hides: Include at least two hides—one on the warm side and one on the cool side of the enclosure—for proper thermoregulation and to provide a sense of security.

Feeding and Hydration Supplies

• Food Dish: Use a shallow and sturdy food dish to serve meals. Avoid deep bowls that may trap the skink’s tongue as they feed.
• Water Bowl: A stable and spill-resistant water bowl should be supplied with fresh water daily. Keep it clean to avoid bacterial growth.
• Calcium and Vitamins: Calcium powder with or without D3 and a reptile multivitamin should be on hand to dust food items and meet nutritional needs.

Cleaning and Maintenance Tools

• Substrate Scoop: A scoop makes it easier to spot-clean the enclosure regularly and maintain proper hygiene.
• Sanitizer: Reptile-safe disinfectants are necessary for cleaning the enclosure and accessories without harming your pet.
• Thermometers and Hygrometer: Equip the tank with at least two thermometers to monitor the warm and cool sides, and a hygrometer to check humidity levels (aim for 40-60%).

Enrichment and Interaction Items

• Climbing Structures: While they are primarily ground-dwelling, sturdy logs, branches, or ramps can encourage exploration and exercise.
• Enrichment Toys: Small, safe items like hides or puzzle food feeders can enrich the habitat and stimulate natural behaviors.
• Gloves or Handling Tool: For safe handling, especially when taming a new skink, a soft glove or reptile hook can be useful to prevent accidental bites or stress.

By ensuring the availability of these essential supplies, beginners can create a comfortable and healthy environment for their Northern Blue Tongue Skink, paving the way for a rewarding reptile care experience.

Final Thoughts on Caring for Northern Blue Tongue Skinks

Caring for Northern Blue Tongue Skinks involves a thoughtful approach to their diet, habitat, and well-being. These hardy reptiles are relatively low-maintenance, but their care requires attention to detail to ensure they remain healthy and thrive in captivity. Owners should prioritize replicating their natural environment to the best extent possible.

Establishing a proper habitat is critical. A spacious enclosure with adequate ventilation and a secure top is essential to prevent escapes. The setup should include a temperature gradient, offering a basking area of approximately 95°F and a cooler end between 75-85°F. UVB lighting is significant to promote healthy calcium absorption and overall vitality. Substrate choices, such as cypress mulch or aspen shavings, should promote easy spot cleaning while minimizing the risk of impaction.

Nutrition plays a vital role in their care. A diet predominantly composed of high-quality protein sources such as lean meats, feeder insects, and occasional eggs, paired with fresh vegetables and fruits, is recommended. Calcium supplementation without D3 (if UVB is provided) or with D3 (when UVB is absent) should be included to prevent metabolic bone disease. Owners should avoid feeding high-phosphorus or high-oxalate foods in excess as they hinder calcium absorption.

Regular handling helps tame their naturally docile nature, though it must be done gently and with care, especially for younger skinks. Hygiene, including cleaning their enclosure and addressing issues like shedding or fecal buildup, should be maintained consistently. Attention to behavioral cues—such as lack of appetite, unusual aggression, or lethargy—alerts owners to possible health issues.

A well-cared-for Northern Blue Tongue Skink can live up to 20 years. Comprehensive care builds trust between the reptile and its owner, ensuring a rewarding and long-lasting companionship.